The Psychometric Approach To Child Development Psychology Essay

The Psychometric Approach To Child Development Psychology Essay The psychometric approach is defines as the tradition research to standardized the development test of intelligent. Some of the experts agreed and defines that psychometric approach, triachic theory, multiple intelligence view and processing approach. In the recent advance defines intelligence, is the componential analyses is the test for the childrens test thats in between aspects of intelligence test and the information processing. The IQ test is the main component of the approach from the element on attention, memory and the reasoning strategies. Charles Spearman (1927) had a theory of intelligence which two factors, general intelligence called g, that is the ability in mostly of the intellectual task. The specific intelligence is the second factor which to difference abilities to people have in different activities. For example, some children are good in reading (verbal) and some of them might be good in mathematical reasoning and other like logical thinking and others. Raymond B. Cattell (1971, 1987) and John Horn have proposed two factors, fluid ability is the use of brain actively to solve problem. For example, the child will learn to use the ability to solve verbal analogies and the skills for relationship of the stimuli. The crystallized ability is the knowledge through schooling and experiences from social custom. For example, the children will gain their knowledge from going to school such as the general test information What is the temperature for boil water, then numerical abilities What is 206=? is measured by crystallized intelligence. John Carroll (1993), by using the three-stratum theory of intelligence, such as g, is based on the cognitive abilities. For example, likes spelling ability, spatial scanning, and simple reaction time of the child. The second is broad stratum is the basic of biological components in fluid and crystallized intelligence, learning and memory. The third is narrow stratum which is specific behavior of the people based on the second broad stratum. For example, the child reaction time to the decision for process or speed. Louis Thurstone (1938) had analyzed of the college student test scores, that the important of g (Spearmens Theory). Thurstone had broken Spearmens theory and called primary mental abilities, perceptual speed, numerical reasoning, spatial ability, verbal meaning, memory, and inductive reasoning. For example, when the rain have stop there will be rainbow and lastly the sun will shine again. (From the observation) Robert Sternberg (1985), have developed the information processing theory that is in contrast of the cognitive approach of psychometric approach. Sternbergs Triarchic Theory According to Sternbergs, he believe that the complete theory of intelligence combines of dealing the adapt and changes in nature and nurture the main factors of intelligence from the triacrhical theory of intelligence such as: i) analytics intelligence or componential subtheory, the skills of focus on analyze problem, information-processing and create more solution. Is the component for intelligence acts of applying the strategies, knowledge acquisition, metacognitive and performance. This method is only useful on mental tests which only useful in some potential ways that will different result in the narrow view from the intellectual behavior of the children. In the research the components is showing that human intelligence in children is faster in the information processing by the age. Is the encoding component of the children will decrease in time with age and later increased. For example, a doctor is to (a) patients (b) medicine (c) nurse. From this the children will visualize the step or process of the doctor and to the patients. Knowledge acquisition component is from the process to store and gain used information and for the metacognitive is to control the performance to structure and set up the problem together. For the performance component is the process of the stimuli the perceiving of holding the information such as comparing values, short-term memory, to recall material from long-term memory, total calculating and to differences as well. For the metacognitive is to solving and values for the cause of use in the performance component, needs of the result to known and to evaluate the solution too. For example, when the children (4 years old) at pre-school, the teacher will teach them to plan and they start to write on the piece of paper. (Metacomponents), writing on the paper (performance components) and new things is learned when writing. (knowledge-acquisition components). ii) creative intelligence or experiental subtheory, the ability of action in solving problem. In this theory the success is not depends on the familiar information but from the new problems is by useful solution. This experience role had split in to two categories which is automation and the novelty. The automation which is the process of task that can be completed in several or many times before and is easy to complete by the individual. On the other side of the novel, the task is more difficult and had never encounter before by the people that will find hard to manage the test. The novelty is from the child or people that think creatively with more skillfully than others. When the new task given, they will act actively and the information processing is conscious to respond to it by automatic way or to increase the information-processing in efficiency practice. From this aspect they will quickly moving to high-level performance and for all of us. We will able to think creatively and only few of us able to excel by having the novel solution. According to Sternberg, the familiar of the task, it is crucial for a person to understand before the assessing the behavior of that persons. For example, a test for two group of different culture group of intelligence test. In the testing process the items that are familiar to one of the group and the novel to introduces the culture and is bias to the testing process and is unfair for the other groups assessment that regards of abilities. iii) practical intelligence or contextual subtheory, the application of the understanding skills in what will actually work or is a goal-oriented of the purpose in adapting to, shaping or selecting environments. For intelligence people is adapt with their thinking to adapt the skills to fit in the desire and demands to the better environments. If they cant adapt to the environments they will try to change or shape according to their needs. They will go to a new environment to adapt the success of behavior in new context. This practical intelligence is not a culture free that remind to us in this intelligence behaviors. For some children, because of the background they needed success in the intelligence tests and that will easy for them to adapt to the tasks and testing condition. In the daily life the child often show sophisticated abilities. For example, the children will be interested in stories telling, or some artistic activities such as dancing, drawing or art and to interact with skillfully people like playing golf, riding house and others. According to Sternberg, the underlying of the traditional IQ test is ignoring the produce of intelligence of how people answer to the theories of intelligence the number of answer for the full picture of intelligence is not only includes the right answer from the people but the efficiency of the process in use. In the information-process, the reflection of the behavior will effect on the respond to novelty or automation process in the people or child. From the triarchic model able to carry out the efficiently and effectively to solve the novel and adapt to their environment such as from different context like age, culture, historical background. (Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider:Pg250) It is also called as theory of successful intelligence to the abilities of people to be need to success in life which based on their own sociocultural context include of analytical, creative and practical intelligence. The ability of the intelligence is not only for do well in school, is measure by the traditional intelligence test for the ability in throughout the life. The success of the smart people is to maximize their strength and to reduce the weakness in them. The environment is selected by their abilities to modify or to extend it, the environment to suit their own profile. The intelligence is still tested widely until now and does not affect the intelligence from the sophisticated view. (Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider:241) Sternberg had tested on the validity of the triarchic theory with his collaborators that had gave children from Finland, Spain, Russia, and United Stated for a thousand of test item tap of analytics, creative and practical skills. It was repeated indicated in analyzes is clearly indicated the three factor of the intelligence. It was complexity of the triarchic theory in the intelligence test of the intelligence behavior and limitation of the test. According to Sternberg (ET al.2000), the vital to success in life, is through the form of intelligence by the help of cultural thats comes from the behavior as intelligence. From the researcher, the parent cognitive trait is the first grade as describe by the Caucasian Americans. The noncognitive capacities is the minorities such as motivation, self-management and social-skills is by the Cambodian, Filipino, Vietnamese and Mexican immigrant. According by Sternberg, some of the children intelligence strength and can overlook easily test by mentally through the estimation especially in the minorities. ( Luara E.Berk:Pg323) The triarchic theory of intelligence from Sternbergs, is clearly show that a useful way to understand human intelligence and is included the important aspect thats different from the other psychometric approach. The process is focus on human experience which is important and interaction between the surrounding and environment of the human. 2) Language is consists of sound, meaning, and the structure that well be using in our daily. The flexible communication system is the combining thats known as language details. Language is having four parts of component which is:- Phonology , are the system of the sound from language and the combining of rules to produce a meaningful speech sound. Semantics is the meaning from the sentence and words that expressed Grammars in to two parts :- Syntax is the combines of words in arranging the sentence to meaningful sentences. Morphology, different grammatical expression of the children to forming words in to meaning. (e.g number, case, person, active, or passive voice) Pragmatics The principles for engage the effective and appropriate social contexts or communication. The theory of the language development is the have three basic explanation as following, Behaviourist perspective, is through observing from the nurture or environment. Nativist perspective, is from the nature or inherited from the genes Interactionist perspective, between the nature and the nurture is the focus interaction. Phonological Development Is the process that depends on the produce sound, sound sequences and the ability of the child to combine and understand the phases and words. The child will try to talk to people around them to be produce speech like adult. For example, Coco for Coconut or ( Menn and Stoel-Gammon 2009) The early phase The child will start by easies sound of consonant-vowel and repeated syllables words such as Mama, Dada and etc. There is a phonological limitation in the child as they refer to the parent in the first word. As the child looked on the object for longer, they would pronounce the words correctly, if they not focus to the object will lead to mispronounce it. They will increase vocabularies of making new words by using theyll perceptual abilities. Appearance of phonological strategies As the children at age 2 1/2 , from the frequently practice and development on the phoneme in their language that are more accurate and rapidly. Child will use their systemic strategies to challenge difficult words. For some children they will use different way to pronounce the words on the complexity of the words. The range of languages is the children errors such as English, Cantonese, French and others. The conveying meaning is the complexity of language and the certain is important rate of phonological progress. For example, the child might say I turn instead of My turn. The children will greatly improve they pronunciation in the preschool years. The child will actively large responsible in problem-solving efforts and maturation in them in resistant to the phonological errors to adult. Later Phonological Development The phonological is complete by the age of 5 year old, the child will correct themselves of a new words that are hard to understand and difficult to pronounce. Semantic Development Child can produce about 50 words at the age of 18 months. The children comprehension is from the understanding of language and to pronounce from the language they used. From the communication the child can recall memory and recognize new words by picking up more new words. For example, child can follow simple instruction such as Throw this into the dustbin or Go to sleep now. The Early Phase Children are learning based on the labeling and modeling by their parent from the object and events. The early word learning is by emotion influences. By the age of 1 1/2 , to divert the attention of the child to learn they will listen carefully and with strong emotion in better learning of words. For example, the child able to express themselves when there are happy, sad and mad. For toddlers, they will wider their experiences in the object and events to remember such as their will know to mention places like house or store and to mention themselves as mine, me and their own names well. The fast mapping will cause in the process as the children connected to a new words in a real world. For example, when they see a fish, theyll say See is a fish. Fish lives in water. Most children will have their own referential style to refer to the objects in their vocabularies. There also some children who use an expressive style which using more on the social formulas and pronouns. For example, the child will use of words like You wanna play? or bye-bye. Children will often underextension of using too many words or errors. For example, a 2 years old child, use of words of doggie as the furry animal with four legs. On the other errors is overextension that the child used it to refer to more object. For example, will use of words bus, when they saw a lorry, truck and fire engines. Later Semantic Development The children will expand their vocabulary about 400000 words in the primary school from the start to end. Their will start to use more complex words like weapon or equipment. The children will become reflective and analytical knowledge in understanding more definitions or meaning of words includes riddles and humour. Their will improve more on the language as become adolescence by using the words e.g. The children will use complex words like sophisticated or enthusiasms. How semantic development takes place The toddles best learning is that, they receive feedback from the adult but the adult cant always be there to correct each word picked from the child as according the researcher. For example, the parent will point to the bird and teach the child to say bird, when they saw a furry, with two wings animal. The child will need their cognitive process to support them. The influence of memory By using the phonological store, the children fast mapping is supported by the special part of working memory so they can hold the speed-based information. The child using more often nonsense words, there is higher phonological memory skills increase in the present vocabulary and the growth over year. In this concept is able for the child (2 years old) to have good phonological memory transfer new words to the long-term memory to connect with the new concept such as when giving one or two words they can recognize by the initial sounds. From this early development will link to the advance of the phonological memory of the advance vocabulary development for other tasks such as language task include comprehension longer and complex words. The child will keep learning new words and they will rely on the difficult words to detect the new words meaning. For instance, tig or tiger and but or butterfly. Strategies for word learning Children will figure out the meaning by themselves using contrasting word they know and assign it in their new vocabulary gap. For example, when the child got to learn a new object such as square, then master the object by more names like cube or box. Beside children will assign the preliminary meaning and to match the words to conventional use in their language. For instance, when the children know the basic word (bird), they will add names like parrot, crow at the hierarchical level. In this process is not fully understand, the vocabulary growth of the child is by the mutual exclusivity bias which is the referring that the words are by categories and separate (nonoverlapping) entirely. For example, child can refer to the object to categories it belongs, such as a dog is a pet, a mammal and animal). Child mostly refer to the object in well-organize shape. The shape bias is clearly shows they learn the noun based on shape and the attention of the additional shape in the object. The toddlers readily to master more objects name by shape and vocabulary accelerates when they go to preschool to learn more new words and language skills. For example, a shape heart, can be label as love and red color. The child will discover a lot new word from the preschool by observing the used in words or restructure of sentence through syntax which knows as syntactic boostrapping. For example, This is chilli will used the new word to adjective the for a familiar object ( chili) refers to the object and they will used syntactic information generalized and refine the words to other categories like Is red as a chilli. Through the frequent information from the adult is providing advantages of social information to the children. The children will be informed by the adult about meaning of words directly. Is the parent to highlight the meaning adjective and label information to the children of object property saying of words. The adult will use one or two words to explain to the child, e.g. You can call this flower but is better if you say tulip'. The children will growth more if the parent clarify and provide information of vocabularies. Explaining vocabulary development Children will have they own ability to induce words meaning by using mutual exclusivity and syntactic boostrapping, by some theories. This is not sufficient to account to the flexibility to the child. Too many differents word-learning strategies cant learn by child due to used in different language. For example, English-speaking child telling different between object, This is marble, by multiple objects which same Those are marbles and the proper name is This is marble. The alternative of vocabulary growth is another perspective cognitive strategies in children by apply nonlinguistic stimuli. The propose children had the word-learning strategies emerge out of the effort decipher language is called emergentist coalition model. The coalition of the children is through perceptual, social and linguistic important in the swift of the age. For example, the infant will respond to the parent when the parent using a toy to play with them. They will have sensitivity and perceptual towards the toy and in social cues, they will have attention to the gaze and gesture in them. The major role plays in language will develop in linguistic cues like syntax and intonation. Grammatical development Children (18 to 24 months) will use two to three words sentence. They will use telegraphic speech to express themselves that is high-content words, less important ones. In the earlier combination they did follow of the consistence grammar. Refining and generalizing structure is rules using by the children to process two to three words. For example, 2years old child, will say I do it instead of I can do it by myself. To express variety meaning children will use utterances two-three words like adultlike by the children over the world. Children will use the same construction words to express different composition. E.g. children will say Mommy milk, when he is hungry and the mother will give them milk. Due to the limitation of the memory they cant produce a long sentence. From simple sentence to complex grammar Children can produce complex sentence by the age of 3. They start to create sentence by using adjectives, nouns, verbs, article and prepositional phrases. For example, the child will say, He is the boy, who chasing by the dog. At the preschool the children will refine and generalize the grammatical forms. Development of Grammatical Morphemes Grammatical morphemes are structural and semantic complexity is consisting reflects to the English-speaking child. Children will add morphemes like -s, -ing, or -ed to form plurals, present and past tenses. There are two important roles in morphemes, structural complexity that using by the child. E.g. By adding the ending -s or -ing. The child will express correct tense such as I am a student versus They are student the second semantic complexity. Overregularization is regular morphemes rule for the child extent the words that is exceptions the type in errors. For instance, My bag is heavy and We each have two eyes when the child is 2 to 3 years old. Children will have inconsistent patented when hear irregular forms from the adults and they will have irregular morphemes fails on the -ed rule that lead to overregulariazation result. Development of complex Grammatical Forms As the child have master the auxiliary verb, that will lead them to new expressions. Negatives, the learning of negation there are three types : Non-existence, is something that absence remarks for the child. E.g. No sound Is spoiled. Rejection, the child will expresses opposite. E.g. Dont play Denial, denies truthfulness in something by the child. E.g. That not my blanket This is the parental speech causes the early construction in imitation. When the parent tried to express the rejection or non-existence, they will start by no at the sentence: E.g. No, you didnt turn it on the sound. The child will add more auxiliary verb by the age of 3. Question, is the first appear at the preschool years and it an order sequence. Child start their sentence -wh question such as begin with where, which, what, who, why, when and how. For example, What is that?, Where is that. The caregiver will correct the child expression when the sometimes the child have error in auxiliary verbs. Other complex constructions Children will produce a complex construction by using more grammatical structure sentence to increase conforms of rules. First the children will whole sentences, e.g. Dad lets to the shop and we buy some snack to home. The embedded sentence will be produce by the child later on such as (I think he will join us), tag question (Ann wont be coming, isnt she?) and passive sentences (The cat was chasing by the dog). Later Grammatical Development When the children go to school they will improve the master of complex construction such as to produce more passive statements. Child will use full passive voice and statement during the middle childhood and adolescence. For example, (Is no sold out or Is not available) full passive (The cracker is finish by Daddy). Infinitive phrases, is another advance understanding of grammatical achievement of the child to different in the sentence. Eg. Andy is happy to go to school or Andy is eager to go to school Ideas about How Grammatical Development Takes Place Strategies for Acquiring Grammar The basic grammatical regularities are the properties that the children rely on the language. Semantic bootstrapping is the word that the children use to figure out structure sentence. Children will group the words, agent qualities as subject and words action qualities as verbs. Children master grammar by the observation structures that believe by the others. Eg. Understand, think and believe and the basic activity and input. The Chomskys theory is the essence that believes by others theorists the idea of one that accepts is semantic bootstrapping but grammatical categories are innate. Child has special language-making capacity such as the discovery of the grammatical regularities by analyzing in the language they hear. Environmental support for Grammatical Development Adult will feedback to the children by two techniques and maybe used together, recasts, to correct by restructuring inaccurate speech and expansions, to increase complexity children speech by elaborating more. For instance, I gotted a book, the parent will respond, Yes, you got a new stories book. To clarify more questions to the children may encourage them to understand the correction of the grammar. Pragmatic Development Is the used in language to communicate interactive in social such as taking turns, stating of messages, staying in same topic, and to cultural rules. Acquiring conversational skills Children will make eye contact and take turn to interact in a conversation. Additional strategies such as turnabout, which is not only comment by the speaker but also required to request and respond to the partner again. Shading is the changing of topics and motif the discussion focus as a speaker. Illocutionary intent, the acts of speaking of the speaker when is form utterance not perfectly consistence. For example, when the child saying to his mother I am getting bored here, means I want to go home. This is to give the child how to communicate clearly, to express of narrative style which with skills and literacy development. The child will be able to communicate with their siblings such as twins, older siblings and parents that enable participated in exchange longer conversation. The young child will picking up more skills in listening to their sibling interaction such as using of I or you. E.g. I like blue color What is your favorite color? Communicating Clearly Children are using referential communication skills, that is effective in communicate effectively such as deliver clear conversation and clarify the message if is unclear to ask for more information. Child will depend on the situation and demand to interact in the situation such as when they are giving guideline to follow the instruction. For example, when they on the phone conversation they will listen carefully from the caller like Can I speak to your mother please? and therefore the child will ask the mother to answer the calls. Narratives The child will produce brief renditions to jump to another event when the child reaches at 4 years old, called leapfrog narrative. The child will produce chronological narrative such as the temporal sequence. For instance, We went stadium. Then we go to swimming. Later we when to cycling For the preschooler will to narratives evaluations like how and why of the comment events or their feeling and others people thoughts and intentions. Child will connect themselves the powerful actions and pretend props in this event. From this event, the child will master more in reading and comprehension and written development. Sociolinguistic understanding Children will be sensitive to the language adaption of social expectations that called as speech registers. Child will understand the different of the social position in stereotypic features such as dominant male roles, play-roles like teacher, doctor and etc. Meanwhile, for feminine roles likes mother, student with a soft spoken voice. Parents which teach them the voice tone. E.g. to say bye-bye, Hi, parents will teach the child to say please and thank you if the child fail to do appropriate. The parents will teach the child to adapt language style in social context when they turn to teenager. They will learn to be persuasive, well-organize and greater skills in effective communication skills and cognitive self-regulation. For instance, when the child grown up to start working, they use they communicate skills to interact with different level of people. (Luara E.Berk:Pg391)

Conversation Analysis and the X Factor

Part 1 I have selected an interview with X-Factor judge Kelly Rowland, in which she finds out that contestant Frankie Cocozza has been ‘kicked off' of the show. Transcription methods vary depending on what the analyst chooses to investigate. In this particular case, as I was interested in, not only how the speakers perform social activities through language (Seedhouse, 2008), but also the contribution of their non-verbal actions, I chose Conversation Analysis (CA). However, one must point out that, although CA emphasises empirical, data-led research â€Å"to guard against building speculative theories,† (Hewings, 2008, p. 4), it is futile to suppose one single, authoritative version of the original event exists (Graddol, 1994). Furthermore, not all features of spoken interaction can be captured, nor can specific motives be attributed to a certain non-verbal action. 01Reporter: of course we are a:bsolutely huge fans of you on the[x factor 02Kelly: [thank you 03Reporter:(l oving watching [you 04Kelly: [thank you 05Reporter: um (. ) but b. but (. ) w. we're sho(cked to hear today ((fiddles with hair)) that Frankie's (. ) gone (. ) what can you tell ? us ? w. hat do you make of that 06Kelly:(0. 2) what(= 07PA:= I don't we don't we've been lo(cked in a room [all day 08Reporter: [oh re::ally( hah hah (. ) oh gosh yeah( th. they released a statement saying that he um (. ) that he's decided to leave 09PA:(. ) oh I don't know I think we'll have [to ( ) 10Reporter: [oh I'm sorry I ( ) 11Kelly: ((holds up hand as if to stop)) [yeah cos that would be quite the face to have from [that oh my god 12Reporter: [I'm so sorry I didn't realise it like broke all over twitter (. and I um we got a ? statement ? about it 13PA:((Kelly looks at her PA)) (0. 2) I don't know we'll have to cos (Ellen's not (here from (. ) talkback we haven't we'd need to get that [verified 14Kelly: [ye: :ah [I'm sorry 15PA:[ ( ) music interview [today 16Reporter: [like no no I'm sorry I didn't mean to= 17PA: =well hahhah 18Reporter:I I didn't mean to [like 19PA: [ ( ) 20Reporter:Yeah sorry I didn't mean to [like um I didn't realise that you (. ) didn't know 21Kelly: [ ((she sighs loudly)) (0. 3) (poor guy( 380 words Part 2Conversation Analysis is based on the idea that what is said draws a vast amount of meaning from what is left unsaid (Maybin, 2007). Seemingly incoherent conversations are actually organised in an orderly fashion, centred around the cooperation of participants (Hewings, 2008). The excerpt I have chosen is particularly interesting as, although it stems from a potentially scripted situation, due to Kelly's misinformation, the entire conversation immediately shifts to unscripted. The conversation begins with informal ‘small talk,' known as phatic communion (Malinowski, 1923. Its primary purpose is not its content, but rather to bind the reporter and Kelly together before ‘getting down to business. ‘ The reporter's opening comment of being an absolutely huge fan of hers on the X-Factor establishes an interactional framework for the encounter. As the interviewer, she is expected to lead the conversation, yet her continuous opening compliments – â€Å"loving watching you†- show that she is aware of Kelly's higher status and, thus, is paying far more attention to face needs (Levinson, 1987). â€Å"Face† is a term coined by sociologist Goffman (1967) for people's public self-image.Here, the reporter, keen to obtain a successful interview, uses compliments to focus on positive face needs, fitting with Holmes' (1994) research that women are more likely to give compliments as a way of gaining popularity through ‘egalitarian norms. ‘ Although turn-taking may be taken for granted, it is actually managed through a complex range of linguistic and social signals. In the transcript, we can see that normally one person talks at a time, and any instances of overlap are quickly repaired (lines 15-16). Early conversation analyst, Sacks (1974), suggests this is due to people's shared cultural knowledge of the kind of ‘script' used in certain speech events. Therefore, turns can be roughly predicted. Furthermore, this intuitive knowledge is based on adjacency pairs, where particular utterances and responses tend to occur together – e. g. , lines 1-4, where each compliment is answered with â€Å"thank you. † Through this dialogic comprehension, turns can easily be allocated. In addition to adjacency pairs, Sacks noticed that speakers unconsciously respond at the end of a grammatical unit, rather than in the middle.In lines 5-7, we see clear examples of transition relevance places (TRP), where the reporter pauses for a response, allowing both other interlocutors to speak. Sometimes, one can slightly overlap the previous speaker or break in before a TRP (e. g. , lines 9-10), which is classed as an interruption. The concept of maintaining face is a constant reference point throughout the interaction, especially when the journalist discovers that Kelly does not know that Frankie has left the competition.Determined to both satisfy Kelly's face needs, as well as to protect her own, the journalist begins apologising profusely (lines 10-20), in addition to hedging expressions (line 18) to avoid a face-threatening act, personifying the British ‘negative politeness' culture (Brown, 1987). Line 12 even shows an example of typical political rhetoric whereby the journalist immediately changes her usage of the pronoun ‘I' to ‘we' in order to give collective responsibility (Beard, 2008) for the news on Frankie's departure. This signal of inclusiveness is another device used to save face and ensure that conversation continues running smoothly.It is interesting, however, that, contrary to the belief that a person will use ‘I' when wanting credit for an idea, the journalist still uses ‘we' (line 5). Given that ‘we' can have various potential meanings, here it would appear to be a mechanism to emphasise with the British public – ‘we,' as a whole, are shocked at the news. Even so, when apologising, the journalist shifts back to the first person singular, almost as if she feels she has the sole responsibility to maintain face, both for personal and professional motives.Spoken conversation is filled with inexplicit references that are understood by a considerable amount of shared knowledge between speakers. In line 13, when replying to the journalist, the PA announces that ‘Ellen' is not here – we can assume that the journalist knows who Ellen is but, just to make sure, the PA adds ‘from Talkback' (X-Factor's Production Company). As well as justifying why they cannot answer the question, this response also subtly signals solidarity by communicating surreptitiously that there are no ‘hard feelings' between them.As Levinson's (1987) study shows, people are remarkably ade pt at interpreting these inexplicit nuances and, thus, it should serve to put the journalist more at ease. These references are closely linked to elliptical structures, such as in line 3 where, although the clause lacks some words, its meaning is inferable from its context. These half-finished sentences are a key part of everyday interactions, yet would seem highly inappropriate in written English. As all speakers are women in this transcript, it is easy to identify their specific style features.According to Lakoff (1975), women are more cooperative and work harder to make conversations run smoother. This aspect is clearly detectable throughout the extract by both the journalist's repeated apologies and Kelly and her PA's attempts to casually move away from the issue. This non-confrontational collaborative speech style also centres around an interest in people's feelings (Goodwin, 1990). However, as opposed to Lakoff's suggestion that women use more tag questions and weaker vocabula ry, we see no examples of this in the conversation.One reason may be that the women have no reason to show deference, as there are no men involved and, thus, they do not have to conform to the belief that they occupy a less powerful position in society. One predominant metaphor comes in line 7 of the text when the PA states that they have been â€Å"locked† in a room all day. This device both emphasises that they truly have no idea about the news, as well as serving as a pointer to guide the conversation into a different direction. In response to this metaphor, we see continual repetition from the journalist (in particular, â€Å"yeah† and â€Å"sorry†).Although repetition is typically used to persuade, here it performs the dual function of consciously expressing the journalist's nervousness as well as unconsciously signalling how the other speakers should respond. The repetition of â€Å"sorry† is used to indicate the journalist's desire to not impose up on them and avoid any act that may threaten face. In terms of prosody, the use of intonational shift is very significant, as it highlights particular key words, as well as prompting the other speakers when to reply (Atkinson, 1984).In line 6, Kelly's voice rises up on â€Å"What? † to express disbelief and concern at the information that she has been given. Similarly, we see a fall in intonation on the last remark â€Å"Poor guy,† which signals completion as well as sadness. Likewise, the lengthy stress on â€Å"yeah† (line 14) shows acknowledgement of the PA's utterance and provides a sense of cooperation with her. A related concept is the function of softly spoken words. In line 5, ‘us' is murmured softly in order to place the journalist on the same level as the interviewee.Despite the typical image of a journalist, this lady wants to show that she is truly interested in how Kelly feels about Frankie's departure on a personal level. In line 12, ‘st atement' is pronounced quietly to perhaps ‘soften the blow' of the news. As a statement is something official, it highlights the fact that the news is real, and not just a rumour. Therefore, in order to save face, the journalist tactfully pronounces the word. This conversation extract is filled with various meaningful pauses. A lot of these pauses occur within a syntactic unit before an important content word (e. g. line 20) to subtly inform the speaker that they are not finished yet. However, there are also prolonged pauses, such as in line 21 – in this case, Kelly is genuinely shocked at the news and needs to carefully plan her answer before speaking. For celebrities, this is even more important, as anything they do say can be subject to scrutiny. The journalist's utterances are also classified by filled pauses, such as ‘um' and ‘hahhah' – this shows hesitancy on her part and a caution to ensure that she does not make the situation anymore awkward t han it already is. This also explains the reasons for her continual cluttered speech (e. . , line 5) – on breaking the news, she cannot predict Kelly's reaction, and so she nervously brings up the topic, not sure of the best approach, eluding the usual self-assured journalistic persona. Finally, when looking at body language, it appears that it communicates a lot non-verbally. Firstly, in line 5, the reporter fiddles with her hair as she relates the announcement. Although we cannot claim 100% what this means, it is highly likely that this is a comforting action in a tense situation. In line 11, Kelly's raising of the hand signals that she wishes to stop and does not want her reaction recorded.Line 13 similarly expresses uncertainty on Kelly's part when she looks at her PA for reassurance before speaking. Finally, in line 21, the prolonged sigh emphasises with Frankie's grief. Overall, this particular extract fascinated me, as it shows how scripted conversation can quickly tur n unscripted when typical conventions break down. Non-fluency features are common and evident – there are excessive hesitations, stuttering and repetition by the journalist and spontaneous turn-taking procedures seen by the interruptions and overlaps of Kelly and her PA (Edwards, 2007).Furthermore, irregular supra segmental features are present, as well as fillers and echoes. Syntax is irregular, with convoluted utterances and incomplete sections as well as mid-sentence pauses. In my opinion, Conversation Analysis was the best method to transcribe this conversation as, without it, it would have been impossible to convey the specific emotions of each interlocutor as well as their non-verbal communication. Also, I felt that the false starts and fillers were incredibly relevant to the spontaneity of the extract, and provided an insight into each speaker's thought process.I specifically chose to omit gaze in my transcript as CA has been criticised for over-analysing simple gestur es – e. g. , blinking could merely be something in the eye, rather than lying. Using this transcription method, I have been able to analyse both ideational and interpersonal meaning (Halliday, 1978) and how it specifically relates to my chosen example. 1706 words (2086 words in total) References Atkinson, J. M. (1984) Our Master's Voices: The Language and Body Language of Politics, London, Methuen Beard, A. 2007) ‘Using English to persuade' in Maybin, J. , Mercer, N. , and Hewings, A. (eds) Using English, London, Routledge/The Open University, pp. 43-81 Brown, P. and Levinson, S. (1987) Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Crystal, D. (1985) ‘Things to remember when transcribing speech,' Child Language Teaching and Therapy, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 235-239 Edwards, V. (2007) U211 Exploring the English Language, DVD 1: Language Play in English, Block B, Unit 11, Section 5, Milton Keynes, The Open UniversityGoffman, E. (1967 ) Interactional Ritual, Harmondsworth, Penguin Goodwin, M. H. (1990) ‘Tactical use of stories: participation frameworks within girls' and boys' disputes', Discourse Processes, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 33-71 Graddol, D. , Cheshire, J. , and Swann, J. (1994) Describing Language (2nd edn), Buckingham, Open University Press Halliday, M. A. K. (1978) Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning, London, Edward Arnold Hewings, A. 2008) U211 Exploring the English Language, ‘Conversation Analysis,' Resource and Reference Materials, Unit 9, Section 1, Milton Keynes, The Open University Holmes, J. (2001) Introduction to Sociolinguistics (2nd edn), London, Longman Lakoff, R. (1975) Language and Women's Place, New York, Harper & Row Malinowski, B. (1923) ‘The problem of meaning in primitive languages' in Ogden, C. K. and Richards, I. M. (eds) The Meaning of Meaning, London, Routledge &Kegan Paul Maybin, J. (2007) ‘Everyday talk' in Maybin, J. , Mercer, N. , and Hewings, A. eds) Using English, London, Routledge/The Open University, pp. 5-41 Percival, A. (2011) What? The moment Kelly finds out Frankie has been axed [online] London http://celebrity. aol. co. uk/2011/11/08/kelly-rowland-frankie-cocozza/ (Accessed: 29th Nov 2011) Sacks, H. , Schegloff, E. and Jefferson, G. (1974) ‘A simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking in conversation', Language, Vol. 50, No. 4, pp. 696-735 Seedhouse, P. (2008) U211 Exploring the English Language, DVD 1: Everyday Talk, Block B, Unit 9, Section 1, Milton Keynes, The Open UniversityVaid, V. (2011) 4 rules of Verbatim Transcription [online] Gurgaon http://www. indianscribes. com/4-rules-of-verbatim-transcription/ (Accessed: 2nd Dec 2011) ———————– Key to transcription methods used in this excerpt (. )Short untimed pause (0. 6)Timed interval [ ]Overlapping utterances or actions ( )Transcription doubtful (Marked risi ng shift in pitch (Marked falling shift in pitch : :Extension of sound or syllable .Stopping falling tone ? ? Talk that is quieter than surrounding talk

Essay on What is Art - 4193 Words

Intro In late Antiquity the arts consisted of the seven artes liberales, the liberal arts: Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric, Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, and Music. Philosophy was the mother of them all. On a lower level stood the technical arts like architecture, agriculture, painting, sculpture and other crafts. quot;Artquot; as we concieve of it today was a mere craft. Art in the Middle Ages was quot;the ape of naturequot;. And what is art today? Can we give a definition? Sir Roger Penrose, one of the foremost scientists of our time, when faced with a similar problem with regard to the definition of quite something else, viz., consciousness, states in his The Emperors New Mind: quot;I do not think that it is wise, at this stage†¦show more content†¦None of them are artists, though they all fall short of being so to varying degrees, but they are all painters. And then there are painters who are artists. Where does the difference lie, and why? What does the one lot do which the other lot doesnt? When is painting an art, and why?quot;[3] The criterion of art What makes a painting a work of art? According to the Institutional Theory of Art, quot;Painters make paintings, but it takes a representative of the art-world to make a work of art.quot;[4] So, What is art? is not a question to be answered by the lay-man. We need Priests to tell us what the Truth is, i.e., to decide wether a painting is a work of art or not. Besides the quot;externalistquot; Institutional Theory of Art answer Wollheim gives two internalist answers: quot;The criterion of art lies in some directly perceptible property that the painting has.quot; and The act of painting has to be an intentional one, i.e., the painter has to have the intention of making art. The act of painting has to be undertaken in a special way in order to be art.[5] The origins of art In a book with a totally different subject, The Prehistory of the Mind, Steve Mithen defines art as artefacts or images with symbolic meanings as a means of communication. Art, in Mithens theory, is a product of the cognitive fluidity in the quot;Modernquot; (i.e., Homo sapiens sapiens) Human Mind. The three cognitive processes critical to making art wereShow MoreRelatedLeo Tolstoy s What Is Art?992 Words   |  4 PagesLeo Tolstoy’s What is Art? (1896) is a written work about his ideas concerning the nature of art. Tolstoy’s book concerns how art can express ideas of how to act right and what it’s purpose is. According to Tolstoy art is the intentional communication of an emotion from the artist to the audience where the hope is that the audience feels the emotion felt by the artist. This definition of art varies from other philosophies. Tolstoy believes that this type of communication is inevitable, that it isRead MoreAnalysis Of The Other Hand 1418 Words   |  6 Pagesbeauty we perceive through art can change or support a pre-conceived idea. On the other hand, Elaine Scarry’s view resides in the fact that our view of beauty promotes the spirit of justice. Art is not so much the focus, rather beauty is the driving force of these two essays. There is an educational aspect to beauty that implies improvement within an individual or society and is promoted through both essays. Leo Tolstoy’s â€Å"What is Art† rejects any definition of art based on the conceptionRead MoreMy Own Definition Of Art1124 Words   |  5 Pagesnumerous forms of art over many decades and continue to analyze what art is and how the aesthetics of it affect viewers. Audiences have gathered to â€Å"ooh† and â€Å"ahh† at art galleries, musicals, play and ballet performances, and concerts. In fact people even travel long distances to view world-renowned tourist sites, such as the Sistine Chapel. There are billions of creations and events that are considered art whether that art is valued by a large audience or the artist alone. Either way, art has become aRead MoreThe majority of modern pornography is not art, and by using a selective definition of Leo Tolstoy’s1800 Words   |  8 Pagesmodern pornography is not art, and by using a selective definition of Leo Tolstoy’s version of art, and John Dewey’s theory of art as experience, we can determine that pornography is nothing more than shallow entertainment that exacerbates social inequalities of society’s gender roles. Despite this, pornography has the potential to become art, and should therefore not be censored. It is important to define pornography, as well as Tolstoy and Dewey’s definitions of art, in order to set the groundworkRead MoreWhat Is Art? Art996 Words   |  4 Pages What is art? Art is a difficult word to describe, because it means something a tad bit different to everyone you encounter. The official definition of art according to the Oxford Dictionary is â€Å"the expression or application of human creative skill and imagination, typically in a visual form such as painting or sculpture, producing works to be appreciated primarily for their beauty or emotional power.† The only problem with this definition is that it is very open ended, creativity and imaginationRead MoreWhat is Art?1478 Words   |  6 PagesWhat is art? How can one define simply, a subject so broad, so complex, and as subjective as artistic expression? Leo Tolstoy postulates, â€Å"Art is architecture, sculpture, painting, music, poetry in all its forms†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Tolstoy 15) I believe th at although Tolstoy, may never have imagined it in his original definition, video games may certainly fit as a viable mode of artistic expression; I believe videogames are art. According to Tolstoy, architecture is a perfectly respectable medium for artisticRead MoreWhat Makes Art Art Essay596 Words   |  3 Pages  Ã‚  Art 1030: Art Appreciation Instructor: Steve Bishop Essay One Josalyn Cook 1/26/2011 What Makes Art Art? Art is an object or piece of work that brings one pleasure. Art is also something you see or feel and you cannot even begin to describe the ways you like it or how it makes you feel. Art is something that portrays beauty and happiness. Art lets you see the world through another person’s perspective. Most art seems to tell a story about where a person has been and theRead MoreWhat Is Art? Essay1198 Words   |  5 PagesThroughout the art community, there are many different forms and techniques classed as art. In the recent attack on the Queensland Art Gallery (QAG), many of the public hastily judged the abstract art exhibition by stating ‘Abstract art is not really art’. Some of the reluctant public continue to say ‘Abstract painters are sloppy, reckless, renegades with no regard for rules for formalities.’ It is in my opinion that abstract art is can be classed as art because it incorporates the basic conceptsRead MoreWhat is Art Integrating?984 Wo rds   |  4 PagesWhat is Art Integration? First, let us begin by defining what exactly art integration is. According to the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, art integration can be defined as â€Å"an approach to teaching in which students construct and demonstrate understanding through an art form. Students engage in a creative process which connects an art form and another subject area and meets evolving objectives in both† (Silverstein Layne, 2010). With this definition, we know that art integrationRead MoreWhat Is The Art Of Rhetoric?817 Words   |  4 PagesCarpenter What is the Art of Rhetoric? The art of rhetoric is the process used to persuade an audience to the speaker’s point of view. The Art of Rhetoric is found in many places: magazine, advertisements, documentaries, politicians’ speeches, comercials, and whenever a teanager is trying to get out of trouble. The art of Rhetoric is made up of Ethos, Pathos, and Logos. First, Ethos is the credibility of the speaker. The audience needs to know why they should trust what the speaker is saying.

Native American Medicine Essay examples - 1761 Words

Native American Medicine Native American medicine is based on widely held beliefs about healthy living, the repercussions of disease-producing behavior, and the spiritual principles that restore balance. -Ken Bear Hawk Cohen (Chrisman 1). The beliefs that Cohen is referring to are shared by all North and South Native American tribes, however, the methods of diagnosis as well as the treatments vary significantly. This is mainly due to the fact that Native American medicine is based upon a spiritual view of life. A healthy person is someone who has a sense of purpose and follows the guidance of the Great Spirit who represented the central religious figure for most tribes (Chrisman 2). It is believed that someone is†¦show more content†¦In order to heal a fractured, sprained or dislocated bone, the natives would form a padding of wet clay or rawhide to form a cast around the injury. This restricted movement, thus allowing the bone to heal properly. In another method, used by the Ojibwas, they washed the fractured arm with warm water, then greased it, applied a warm poultice of wild ginger and spikenard to ease the pain, covered it with cloth, and bound the arm with cedar splints (Vogel 215). Th is procedure resulted in a sling that allowed the broken bone to heal correctly. When someone broke a bone, it was crucial that the bone be able to heal properly as the injured person was needed to return to work as quickly as possible. Some Native Americans often used specific drugs to suppress ovulation and control the menstrual cycle (Vogel 5). This drugs success started researchers on the road that led to the pill, a common form of birth control today. This demonstrates that many of the needs of the people of the past are similar to the needs of the people today. In 1536, an Indian chief, Domagaia, treated an abundant disease, scurvy, by boiling the leaves and bark of a magical tree and then placing the dregs upon the legs of the people that had been exposed (Morsette 5). They experienced success with this remedy due to the large amounts of vitamin C present in theShow MoreRelatedNative Americans And Western Medicine1413 Words   |  6 PagesUnderstanding Native Americans and Western Medicine Essential Knowledge for Providing Culturally Competent Care to Native Americans Brittany Schelitzche Writing for Healthcare Hennepin Technical College â€Æ' Native Americans and Western Medicine: Essential Knowledge for Providing Culturally Competent Care to Native Americans Many Alaskan Natives and Native Indians, also known as American Indians, share the same or similar views on health and medicine. Their definition of â€Å"traditional medicine† incorporatesRead MoreNative American Medicine Essay738 Words   |  3 PagesNative American Medicine If you were in the desert or woods and bitten by a snake, where you go for help? A call to the local ambulance and a fast ride to the emergency room are not available to you. How would you know what potions to use and what would heal your wounds? This was the dilemma of the Native American People hundreds of years ago. How did they handle it? The medical traditions and customs have remained a mystery to us for hundreds of years. This paper will try to explore someRead MoreNative American Religion : Medicine And Spiritual Healing1694 Words   |  7 PagesErika Lenis-Abril REL-337 5/10/2015 Native American Religion: Medicine and Spiritual Healing Native American traditional medicine and spiritual healing rituals go back for thousands of years, these traditions often focus on different variations of alternative medicine. This knowledge is passed on throughout generations, many of the tribes learn that by mixing natural plants such as herbs and roots they can make remedies with healing properties. It is believed that being healthy is when peopleRead MoreNative American Medicine and Spiritual Healing Essay1098 Words   |  5 Pageshealing process, large or small. In particular the roots of Native American Medicine men (often a woman in some cultures) may be traced back to ancient times referred to as Shaman. A special type of healer used by the Indians is referred to as a medicine man (comes from the French word medecin, meaning doctor). Shaman are known in many cultures, but are identified by different names: healers, spiritual healers, medicine men, angakok, ganga, mulogo, witch doctors and warlords, just to nameRead MoreThe Native American Medicine Man3135 Words   |  13 PagesThe Native American Medicine Man | From the Past to the Present | | | | The Native American medicine man, also known as a shaman (modern term), priest, healer, and even a â€Å"Star Being† were known to be the spiritual leaders of Native American cultures. Each medicine man was unique in his own way simply because each Native American tribe had their own origin of spirituality and religious beliefs. Each medicine man had their own theory on how to rid people of their troubles and ease theirRead MoreNative Americans and Their Contributions to the Advancement of Health and Medicine934 Words   |  4 PagesNative Americans and Their Contributions to the Advancement of Health and Medicine Stories of Native Americans contributions to the advancement of health and medicine traces were discovered in a small town in Nali, Africa. The very first onset of the beggining of modern pharmacology is the substance called quinine. This is the substance that came from a bark of a tree that grew in high elevations. The Indians has been using this substance to cure malaria, cramps, chills, hear-rythm disordersRead MoreNative American Healing Traditions Could Supplement Modern Western Medicine2054 Words   |  9 PagesMany traditional Native medicines and healing practices were discouraged with the advent of Western medicine, but now there is a movement to return to traditional ways (Zubek, 1994, p. 1924). Modern Western medicine treats the symptoms to cure a diseased state when the body is out of homeostasis. Native American healing traditions do this as well with herbs and plants suited to the purpose. These Native healing traditions also include sacred rituals, chants, and pur ification rites to help bringRead MoreA Comparison Between The Way to Rainy Mountain and Love Medicine881 Words   |  4 Pages In the novels Love Medicine by Louise Erdrich and The Way to Rainy Mountain by N. Scott Momaday, the reader gains views of Native American culture, both past and present, through two disparate means of delivery. Both authors provide immensely rich portrayals through varying literary devices in efforts to bring about a better understanding of problems contemporary Native Americans face, especially regarding their own self-identity. The story of Love Medicine revolves around a central characterRead MoreEssay on Alcoholism922 Words   |  4 PagesAlcoholism Alcohol consumption was initiated on reservations when traders in the nineteenth century started to offer it to oppressed and depressed Native Americans. Natives represent, in fact, the ethnic group with the highest degree of alcohol consumption in the United States. Confinement on reservations after displacement brought for Native Americans identity conflicts and assimilation problems. This situation promoted the abuse of liquor to mitigate the psychological pain inflicted by the dispossessionRead More Pocahontas and the Mythical Indian Woman Essay5406 Words   |  22 PagesPocahontas and the Mythical Indian Woman Pocahontas. Americans know her as the beautiful, Indian woman who fell in love with the white settler John Smith and then threw her body upon the poor white captive to protect him from being brutally executed by her own savage tribe. The magical world of Walt Disney came out with their own movie version several years ago portraying Pocahontas as a tan, sexy Barbie doll figure and John Smith as a blond-haired, blue-eyed muscular Ken doll. Although Disney